THE COMMON-LAW AUTHORS ON CONTRACTUAL CAPACITY IN PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW

Contractual capacity in private international law concerns the law applicable to the competence of a natural person to create rights and duties by concluding a contract with another (natural or juristic) person or persons (see for the substantive law on contractual capacity in South Africa, Hutchison and Pretorius The Law of Contract in South Africa 2ed (2012) 149; and Nagel Commercial Law 4ed (2011) 73). Sometimes it is implied that contractual capacity is no longer such an important issue in private international law due to, for instance, the emancipation of married women (cf Tilbury, Davis and Opeskin Conflict of Laws in Australia (2002) 770; and on the other hand, Schwenzer, Hachem and Kee Global Sales and Contract Law (2012) 203 state, in general: “The legal capacity to enter into contracts is sometimes a neglected topic in the context of the sale of goods”). However, it is suggested that this development indeed increases the relevance of the topic, as today a husband’s contractual capacity could be dependent on the consent of his spouse, while a century ago this was invariably the position only in respect of the wife’s contractual capacity (see Sonnekus “Handelingsbevoegdheid van Getroudes en die Norme van die Internasionale Privaatreg” 2002 27 Journal for Juridical Science 145). In any event, there may be many non-Western legal systems where a married women’s contractual capacity remains limited. In respect of the age of majority, it is true that many legal systems now accept 18 years as the legal age. Nevertheless, a substantial minority of legal systems adhere to ages above or below (see Mankowski J von Staudingers Kommentar zum Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuch mit Einführungsgesetz und Nebengesetzen. Internationales Recht der natürlichen Personen und der Rechtsgeschäfte (2013) 74–104; Reithmann and Martiny Internationales Vertragsrecht. Das internationale Privatrecht der Schuldverträge 7ed (2010) 1878–1880; and Schwenzer et al Global Sales and Contract Law 204–205 and 2011). Contractual capacity may also be affected by mental illness, curatorship (for instance, in the case of prodigality and insolvency) or emancipation (Hutchison and Pretorius The Law of Contract in South Africa 149; and Nagel Commercial Law 73). It is therefore clear that contractual capacity continues to play an important role in private international law.


Introduction
Contractual capacity in private international law concerns the law applicable to the competence of a natural person to create rights and duties by concluding a contract with another (natural or juristic) person or persons (see for the substantive law on contractual capacity in South Africa, Hutchison and Pretorius The Law of Contract in South Africa 2ed (2012) 149; and Nagel Commercial Law 4ed (2011) 73). Sometimes it is implied that contractual capacity is no longer such an important issue in private international law due to, for instance, the emancipation of married women (cf Tilbury, Davis and Opeskin Conflict of Laws in Australia (2002) 770; and on the other hand, Schwenzer, Hachem and Kee Global Sales and Contract Law (2012) 203 state, in general: "The legal capacity to enter into contracts is sometimes a neglected topic in the context of the sale of goods"). However, it is suggested that this development indeed increases the relevance of the topic, as today a husband's contractual capacity could be dependent on the consent of his spouse, while a century ago this was invariably the position only in respect of the wife's contractual capacity (see Sonnekus "Handelingsbevoegdheid van Getroudes en die Norme van die Internasionale Privaatreg" 2002 27 Journal for Juridical Science 145). In any event, there may be many non-Western legal systems where a married women's contractual capacity remains limited. In respect of the age of majority, it is true that many legal systems now accept 18 years as the legal age. Nevertheless, a substantial minority of legal systems adhere to ages above or below (see Nonetheless, the law in this regard is far from clear in South Africa. There is authority in case law for the lex rei sitae or the lex situs (the law of the country where the property is situated) to govern capacity in contracts involving immovable property (Ferraz v d'Inhaca 1904 TH 137 An investigation of the views held by the common-law authors on contractual capacity in private international law may therefore prove valuable in addressing the issue. An analysis is offered in the concluding remarks on whether the views held by the authors have been received in South African case law.

2
The common-law authors   42)) were of the opinion that, in general, the lex domicilii should govern status and contractual capacity (at least as far as movable property is concernedsee the text below on immovable property). (Van der Keessel Praelectiones 98 (Th 42) submitted that applying the law of domicile is sensiblea traveller could not be a minor (lacking contractual capacity) in one instance and a moment later be a major (possessing such capacity), depending on his or her geographical presence.) Rules in this regard were namely seen to be personal in nature in terms of the then prevalent statute theory (Paulus Voet De Statutis 4.3.3 and 4.3.17; Johannes Voet Commentarius 1.4 App 2; and Van der Keessel Praelectiones 75 (Th 27)). (On the statute and comity theories and their influence in Roman-Dutch law, see Forsyth Private International Law 30-45.) The applicable rules would determine, for example, "whether a woman or minor is or is not to be allowed to make a contract without the consent of husband or guardian" (Johannes Voet Commentarius 1.4 App 2).
Van der Keessel provided the following examples. If a person from the Veluwe of 21 years old concluded a contract in Holland, he would be held to possess contractual capacity, although the majority age in Holland was 25 years. The reason is that the lex domicilii, the law of the Veluwe, provided that a male person became a major at age 20 and a female at 18. However, if a young man from Holland of 21 years old concluded a contract in the Veluwe, he would not have the required capacity to do so as his law of domicile regarded him as a minor (Van der Keessel Praelectiones 102 (Th 42)).
The author further employed the example of a 20-year-old domiciliary from Holland who obtained majority status by marriage according to the law of that province. In Friesland, majority could not be acquired by marriage. If the person from Holland concluded a contract in Friesland, he would be regarded as a major, as he had this status in Holland. The law of Holland qua lex domicilii applied (Van der Keessel Praelectiones 104 (Th 42)).  (Th 42)). For instance, Johannes Voet stated that "the question whether one is a major or a minor … is to be decided by the law of the domicile, so that one who is a minor at the place of his domicile is to be deemed to be such anywhere in the world, and vice versawhether you would have that to be the rule in strict law, or (more correctly) as a matter of comity" (Johannes Voet Commentarius 4.1.29 (translation Gane); also see 27.10.11; and Rodenburg De Jure Conjugum 2.1 as referred to by Van Rooyen Die Kontrak 15).
Huber was of the opinion that minors, married women and others with limited capacity, as determined under the relevant law of domicile, "enjoy the rights that persons of like capacities possess or are subject to in each place" (Huber HR 1.3.38; also see Huber HR 1.3.40 and 1.3.41). For instance, a young man of 20 or 21 years old, domiciled in Utrecht, could sell (immovable) property in Friesland as he was recognised as a major in Friesland on the basis of the law of Utrecht (the lex domicilii), and a major, in terms of the law of Friesland (the lex loci contractus), of course, had the capacity to alienate property (Huber HR 1.3.40). (Naturally, a major would also have that capacity in terms of the law of Utrecht. See the example involving the Senatusconsultum Macedonianum below, which more clearly illustrates the difference between Huber's view and that of Van der Keessel. Huber here applied the lex situs in respect of immovables, but see below for a discussion in this regard.)  (Th 42)). However, Van der Keessel added that individuals could not obtain a wider capacity than they would have possessed in terms of the lex domicilii (Van der Keessel Praelectiones 104 (Th 42)). It seems that Van der Keessel proposed a cumulative reference rule in this regard: an individual would be held to have capacity only if he or she had this capacity in terms of both the lex domicilii and the lex loci contractus. (See on the notion of a cumulative reference rule, Neels "Substantiewe Geregtigheid, Herverdeling en Begunstiging in die Internasionale Familiereg" 2001 TSAR 692 707.) An example involving the Senatusconsultum Macedonianum (found in Digesta 14.6), as provided by Van der Keessel (Praelectiones 104 (Th 42)), is useful in illustrating the different views of Huber and Van der Keessel in this regard. A young man of 25 from Friesland concluded a contract of loan in Holland. His father was still alive. In terms of Frisian law, where the Senatusconsultum was received and applied unabridged, the son, although a major, would have a perpetual exception at his disposal against a claim for repayment of the loan (unless, of course, his father was already deceased at the conclusion of the contract of mutuum). In terms of the law of Holland, the Senatusconsultum was a defence only available to minors (persons under 25) (see Lokin, Brandsma and Jansen Roman Frisian Law of the 17 th and 18 th Century (2003) 38-39; and Zimmermann The Law of Obligations. Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition (1992) 177-181). If one were to apply Huber's view here (as discussed above), one would recognise the son's status as a major on the basis of the law of domicile (the law of Friesland). However, the consequences of that status would be governed by the lex loci contractus, the law of Holland, where the defence was not available to majors. Van der Keessel, again, was of the opinion that the son would nevertheless be able to invoke the Senatusconsultum Macedonianum as he would be able to do so in terms of the law of Friesland. He required the son to have capacity in terms of both the law of Holland and that of Friesland before being liable (Van der Keessel Praelectiones 104 (Th 42)).
Another example may be provided to illustrate the difference between the views of Huber and Van der Keessel, although not based on a specific common-law text. In terms of the lex domicilii (the law of A) a minor does not possess contractual capacity whatsoever. In terms of the lex loci contractus (the law of B) a minor between 7 and 18 years of age, in general, does not have the capacity to conclude contracts, but he or she is able to conclude contracts in respect of essential goods (cf par 15[2] and [3] of the Hungarian Private International Law Code (1979)). Natural person X, aged 20 and domiciled in country A, is a minor in terms of the law of A but would be a major in terms of the law of B. Assume that X concludes a contract for essentials in country B. According to the distinction between status and the consequences of that status, as ascribed to Huber, X is, for the purposes of the law of B (including its private international law), recognised as a minor as the lex domicilii applies in respect of status. However, the law of B applies in respect of the consequences of the incapacity of minors. As such, X will be bound to the contract in respect of essential goods. However, according to Van der Keessel, X will not be bound as he or she does not have the capacity to conclude such contracts in terms of the lex domicilii.
Van Bijnkershoek proposed the application of the lex loci contractus as the general rule. A certain case, which was presented before the Hoge Raad, involved a minor Dutch domiciliary who effected a donation in Austria, where he would have been a major. The court decided that Dutch law should govern, but Van Bijnkershoek advocated the application of Austrian law qua lex loci contractus (Van Bijnkershoek Obs Tum no 71). (There is, however, evidence to suggest that Van Bijnkershoek did not regard the lex loci contractus to be applicable in all situations. This is deduced from Van Bijnkershoek's commentary on another decision of the Hoge Raad (Obs Tum no 1523), as referred to by Van Rooyen (Die Kontrak 21).) With regard to contracts relating to immovable property, Johannes Voet (Commentarius 4.4.8) and Van der Keessel (Praelectiones 103 (Th 42)) in principle supported the application of the lex situs. (One text of Huber (HR 1.3.45) may be cited in favour of the lex situs but another (HR 1.3.40) in favour of the lex domicilii as the governing law in respect of immovable property.) Voet referred to the Flemish author Burgundius in this regard: "[A] man of [read: domiciled in] Ghent who has passed the twentieth year of his age can sell and solemnly transfer feudal properties in Hainault … because in Hainault anyone is deemed a major who has completed his twentieth year, though at Ghent it is only the fulfilment of the twenty-fifth year which brings majority" (Burgundius Ad Consuetudines Flandriae aliarumque Gentium, Tractatus Controversiarum Treatise 1, nn 7 and 8, as referred to by Johannes Voet Commentarius 4.4.8; translation Gane).
Van der Keessel, however, submitted that the application of the lex situs could not confer a wider capacity than the lex domicilii would have done (Van der Keessel Praelectiones 103 (Th 42)). An individual therefore had capacity only if he or she had this capacity in terms of both the lex domicilii and the lex situs. Van der Keessel clearly advocated a cumulative reference rule also in the context of immovable property. (See Neels 2001 TSAR 707 on the notion of a cumulative reference rule.) Johannes Voet, Huber and Van der Keessel all proposed exceptions to the primarily applicable rules in favour of the lex loci contractus. Examples of these are found only in cases where foreign court orders were involved. However, the same principle would probably have applied to determine the applicable legal system in cases where no such court order was relevant.
In this regard, Johannes Voet (Commentarius 27.10.11) and Van der Keessel (Praelectiones 103 (Th 42)) required fraud on the part of the incapable party (having brought the contract assertor under the impression that he or she did possess contractual capacity) for the lex loci contractus to be applicable. Voet (Commentarius 27.10.11), in addition, required the ignorance (or good faith) of the contract assertor but also that the ignorance was reasonable in the circumstances. (This was the position where the incapable individual fraudulently concealed his incapacity, while the other contractant was in good faith and indeed deceived by the incapable party. See Johannes Voet Commentarius 27.10.11.) He provided the following example: "Of course if a person who is altogether ignorant of an order of court, and who lives in another country where the order has not been published, has made a contract with a prodigal who craftily conceals that he has been formally interdicted from his property, it would be just for the person who has been so cozened by the prodigal to be relieved on the ground of just mistake, so that he has just as effective an action as if he had contracted with another who had not been interdicted from his property. This assumes that the ignorance is quite reasonable, and that, if it is demanded, he shall himself confirm his good faith by the scruple of an oath" (Johannes Voet Commentarius 27.10.11; translation Gane).
Van der Keessel also required the bona fides of the contract assertor (Praelectiones 103 (Th 42)) but, in addition, that the fraud of the incapable contractant would have prejudiced the first-mentioned party (Praelectiones 104 (Th 42)).
Huber formulated a more general approach, namely that the primary applicable legal system may be excluded "for reasons of equity" (Huber HR 1.3.39). He provided an example in terms of which the contract assertor "had been kept in ignorance of the fact" of the incapacity, referring to his or her bona fides, as well as the fraud of the incapacitated party (Huber HR 1.3.39).

Conclusion
According to Van Rooyen, it is difficult to obtain a clear impression from the works of the common-law authors (Van Rooyen Die Kontrak 23). Forsyth agrees, stating that the old authorities "spoke with an uncertain voice on the question of capacity", recognising "the need for flexibility" in this regard (Forsyth Private International Law 338). The common-law authors utilised the lex domicilii and the lex loci contractus with some flexibility, taking into account the need for an equitable outcome in the particular case. In respect of contracts relating to immovable property, support for the lex situs existed.
The legal systems governing capacity according to the common-law authors were all received in South African case law: the lex domicilii in The differentiation between status and its consequences, ascribed to Huber (HR 1.3.36, 1.3.37, 1.3.38, 1.3.40 and 1.3.41), and advocated by Van der Keessel (Praelectiones 104 (Th 42)), has not been received in South African case law as it never formed part of the argumentation of any of the courts involved (although Forsyth Private International Law 339 is of the opinion that the distinction could provide an explanation for the decision in Kent v Salmon). The cumulative reference rules proposed by Van der Keessel (Praelectiones 104 (Th 42)) have never been considered. The exceptions to the general rules (as proposed by Johannes Voet (Commentarius 27.10.11), Huber (HR 1.3.39) and Van der Keessel (Praelectiones 103 (Th 42)) are also not referred to in the South African decisions. It nevertheless remains important, as formulated by Huber in a general statement, that the primary applicable legal system(s) may be excluded "for reasons of equity" (Huber HR 1.3.39), leaving the door wide open for possible future development in this field.

Eesa Allie Fredericks
University of Johannesburg